
英国杜伦大学杜伦法学院中国法律和政策中心主任杜明教授(网络会议视频截图)
全球卫生危机中的法治与人权:国际标准与英国经验
杜明教授 英国杜伦法学院
2020年5月30日
杜明教授 英国杜伦法学院
2020年5月30日
一、新冠肺炎时代人权与法治的重要性
新冠肺炎疫情是国际关注的突发公共卫生事件,应急管理通常需要采取非常措施。这导致了对基本人权的限制。我们大多数人都很支持政府限制我们自由的措施,至少在一段时间内是这样。然而,有一个严重的危险是,在危机时刻,一个政府可能感到不受任何形式的法律控制,并可能采取它认为必要的任何手段来处理紧急情况。显然有可能滥用这种局势,对人权造成有害影响。更糟糕的是,历史告诉我们,在最初的目的消失后,政府可能会紧紧抓住他们的在危机期间获得的权力不放。因此,正如今天许多演讲者所认识到的那样,如何平衡公众健康、安全和人权是我们同新冠肺炎斗争的中心内容。
今天我会提出两个论点。第一,必须确保作为全球应对covid-19流行病的一部分的公共卫生政策与人权法和标准保持一致。为此目的,对法治的坚定承诺在追求公正的全球健康方面发挥着关键作用。
第二,有一个完善的国际法律框架,规定如何各国应解决疾病的全球传播问题,避免不必要的干涉人权。然而,然而,目前的公共政策回应和公共辩论很少提到这些国际文书中所载的国家人权义务。此外,不幸的是,我们看到许多情况,令人怀疑是否遵循了良好的国际做法。我将具体研究英国在这方面的做法。
二、相关国际义务和最佳做法
要开始构建全球卫生紧急情况与人权之间的关系,一个良好的开端是仔细研究《国际卫生条例》,这是2005年通过的具有法律约束力的国际文书。它规定了196个国家和世界卫生组织如何共同应对疾病的全球传播。
《国际卫生条例》第3.1条明确规定,所有卫生措施的实施必须充分尊重人的尊严、人权和基本自由。第43条还要求,各国在处理公共卫生风险时可以采取的措施必须有科学依据,与所涉风险相适应,并以人权为基础。《国际卫生条例》的意图是各国不应采取伤害人民的不必要措施,也不应阻止各国向国际公共卫生当局报告新的危险。
第二份有关人权的国际文件是《关于公民权利和政治权利国际盟约的限制和减损规定的锡拉库萨原则》。这项不具约束力的文件是由国际法专家在若干非政府组织主办的会议范围内起草的,后来于1984年由联合国经济及社会理事会通过。它详细说明了对Covid-19大流行采取符合人权的公共卫生应对措施的必要性。
《锡拉库萨原则》承认,可以援引公共卫生作为限制个人权利的依据,以使国家能够采取措施,处理对人民健康的严重威胁。但是,以公共卫生的名义限制人权应遵循以下几项准则:
•依法规定和执行
•指向普遍关心的合理目标
•实现目标的严格要求
•可用于实现目标的侵入性和限制性最小的方法
•基于科学证据
•在申请中既不武断也不歧视
•有限的持续时间
•有待审核
总之,《国际卫生条例》和《锡拉库萨原则》都提醒我们,各国对全球突发公共卫生事件的反应不能不受约束,必须遵守各国的人权义务。
三、英国经验教训
由于时间紧迫,我无法回答英国政府抗击新冠肺炎措施(如封锁)的合法性问题。你可能知道,英国政府目前正面临着法院寻求对封锁进行司法审查的挑战。相反,我将强调两项关键的国际人权法律要求,而英国在抗击Covid-19疫情的过程中,可以说至少是暂时未能满足这两项要求。
第一个要求是,对人权的限制在适用上不得任意或歧视。正如我们在英国看到的,自从《2020年冠状病毒法案》匆忙通过以来,授予政府的权力是模糊的、广泛的,而且显然是无限的。法律缺乏精确性,导致解释不一致,执法随意。一时间,警方和公众都对什么是允许的,什么是确切禁止的感到困惑。这在公众和警方之间引起了很大的紧张。比如,我们读了一些关于警察检查人们购物袋的故事,看看他们是否只买了必需的食物,对只买了一瓶酒的人处以罚款,或者阻止那些外出锻炼的人因为离家不在一定的距离内。教训很简单:法律应该明确和阐述清楚,以避免任意适用。
第二个要求是,卫生措施应以科学证据为基础。乍一看,这个要求似乎很简单,但实际上要复杂得多,因为医学、心理学和经济学的数据不完整,预测也不可靠。我在这里举两个例子。第一个是“群体免疫”战略,在英国宣布封锁之前,一些英国政府高级官员公开讨论过这一战略,后来世界卫生组织谴责了这一战略,英国政府否认了这一战略。第二个是关于社区使用口罩的争论。直到最近,政府才发布了新的指导意见,敦促公众在拥挤的地方戴口罩。我们可能想知道,为什么公众在3月、4月和5月初疫情最严重的时候得到了完全相反的建议。
总之,英国有着悠久的法治和保护人权的传统。尽管如此,从上面的例子中我们可以看到,至少英国的措施暂时没有达到国际标准的预期目标。
The Rule of Law and Human Rights in Global Health Crisis: International
Standard and the UK Experience
Prof Ming Du
Durham Law School, UK
30 May 2020
Standard and the UK Experience
Prof Ming Du
Durham Law School, UK
30 May 2020
I. The Importance of Human Rights and Rule of Law in the Time of Covid-19
The Covid-19 pandemic is a public health emergency of international concern.Emergency management often requires the adoption of exceptional measures that result in limitations to fundamental human rights. Most of us are supportive of government measures which restrict our freedoms, at least for a while. However, there is a grave danger that at times of crisis, a government may feel free from any form of legal control and could resort to any means it deems necessary to deal with the emergency. There is a clear potential for abuse of the situation with a detrimental impact on human rights. To make the situation even worse, the history told us that governments may hang on to the powers they acquired during crisis for years after their original purposes evaporated.Therefore, as many of the speakers today have identified, how to balance public health safety and human rights is at the centre of our efforts in fighting Covid-19.
I will make two arguments today. First, it is necessary to ensure consistency of public health policies taken as part of the global response to the covid-19 pandemic with human rights law and standards. For this purpose, a firm commitment to the rule of law plays a critical role in the pursuit of global health with justice.
Second, there is a well-established international legal framework governing how countries should address the global spread of disease and avoid unnecessary interference with human rights. However, current public policy responses and public debate make very few references to states’ human rights obligations contained in these international instruments. Moreover, and unfortunately, we have seen many instances where it is questionable whether good international practices are followed. I will specifically examine UK’s practices in this context.
II. Relevant International Obligations and Best Practices
A good place to start framing the relationship between global health emergency and human rights is to take a close look at the International Health Regulation, a legally binding international instrument adopted in 2005. It governs how 196 countries and the World Health Organization collectively address the global spread of disease.
Article 3.1 of the International Health Regulation clearly requires that all health measures must be implemented with full respect for the dignity, human rights and fundamental freedom of persons. Article 43 further requires that measures countries can take when addressing public health risks must be supported by science, commensurate with the risks involved, and anchored in human right.The intention of the International health regulation is that countries should not take needless measures that harm people or that disincentives countries from reporting new risks to international public health authorities.
The second relevant human rights international document is Siracusa Principles on the Limitations and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. This non-binding document was drafted by international law experts in context of a conference sponsored by several NGOs and later adopted by the United Nations Economic and Social Council in 1984. It fleshes out what a human rights compliant public health response to the Covid-19 pandemic must entail.
The Siracusa Principles recognise that public health may be invoked as a ground for limiting the rights of an individual in order to allow a state to take measures to deal with a serious threat to the health of the population. However, limitations of human rights in the name of public health should follow several guidelines:
• provided for and carried out in accordance with law
• directed toward a legitimate objective of general interest
• strictly necessary to achieve the objective
• the least intrusive and restrictive means available to achieve the objective
• based on scientific evidence
• neither arbitrary nor discriminatory in application
• limited duration
• subject to review
In conclusion, both the International Health Regulation and the Siracusa Principles remind us of the fact that state responses to global public health emergencies cannot be unfettered, and must comply with states’ human rights obligations.
III. Lessons from the UK experience
Time constraint does not allow me to address the question of the legality of UK government measures fighting covid-19, such as lockdown. You may be aware that the UK government is currently facing a challenge before the court seeking judicial review over the lockdown. What I will do instead is to highlight two key international human rights law requirements that the UK arguably failed to meet, at least temporarily, in its fight against Covid-19.
The first one is the requirement that limitations on human rights must be neither arbitrary nor discriminatory in application. As we saw in the UK, since Coronavirus Act 2020 was passed in a rush, the powers granted to the government are vague, wide and apparently unlimited. A lack of precision in the law has led to inconsistent interpretations and random enforcement. For a while,both police and the public were confused about what was permitted and what was precisely prohibited. This has caused a lot of tension between the public and the police. For example, we read stories on the police checking people’s shopping bags to see if they purchased only essential food and fined someone who bought only a bottle of wine, or stopping people who went out exercising because it was not within a certain distance from home. The lesson was simple: law should be clear and expounded clearly to avoid arbitrary application.
The second requirement is that health measures should be based scientific evidence. At first sight, this requirement seems to be straightforward but in practice it is much more complicated because of incomplete data and shaky forecasts in medical science, psychology and economics. I give two examples here. The first was the ‘Herd Immunity’ strategy openly discussed by some senior UK government officials before the UK Lockdown was announced, which was later condemned by the World Health Organization and denied by the UK government. The second is the debate on the use of masks in the community. It is only recently that the government has issued new guidance urging the public to wear face coverings in crowded places. We may wonder why the public was given diametrically opposite advice in March, April and early May when the Pandemic was at its peak.
In conclusion, UK has a long tradition of rule of law and protecting human rights.Still, as we can see from the examples above, at least temporarily the UK measures were not up to the mark expected of international standard.